End-Use Market Sessions

Marcos A. Varayud, Xinquan Zhang, Rio Tinto - Aluminium, Australia; Saurabh Sedha, Rio Tinto - Aluminium, USA; and Nick C. Parson, Rio Tinto - Aluminium, Canada

Significant progress in the field of aluminum alloy development in the last three decades has resulted in the extensive use of alloy 6060 in the Australasian region. The alloy exhibits superior extrudability compared to alloy 6063 while still achieving 6063-T6 mechanical properties under normal production conditions. The lower magnesium content in the alloy offers the potential for greatly enhanced extrusion performance and improved mill and anodized surface finishes of extruded products. This paper reviews the key steps in the development of 6060 alloys by Rio Tinto, starting with the discovery of the Mg:Si ratio in the precipitates at the peak-age condition and subsequent work on various alloy variants tailored for specific customer requirements. The experience in the Australasian region with two 6060 alloys is presented, showing the benefits of using customer-tailored alloys for optimized performance considering the process capabilities at each extrusion plant.

Ben Kuhn, Almag Aluminum, Canada

Design and availability are key drivers of a product's success across nearly all markets in today's fast-paced reality, where innovating into new space can be a bumpy road. Opening communication lines between design, engineering, and manufacturing early on not only increases the chance of timely success, but accelerates innovation, joining the latest manufacturing technology and capability with the creative direction of tomorrow. A collaborative process is highlighted as the catalyst to developing and executing the design, engineering and installation of the floating staircase at Almag headquarters in Brampton, ON. Though structural requirements are blended with target aesthetics creating a profile design over 12” CCD, Almag has overcome the challenge of using 7” and 8” presses. The staircase modernizes headquarters and showcases the benefits of integrated professional inputs at the design stage with its slide fit modular system, making a bold architectural aesthetic possible despite the existing individual profile size limitations.

Tej Patel and Pinakin Patel, Techevon LLC, USA

This presentation discusses the various applications of aluminum with special emphasis on the use of aluminum for architectural anodizing and how the selection of the type of finish is critical to the application.  There will be a discussion on how anodizing is uniquely desirable for applications such as marine components, sunroof, and seal tracks for automobile components. Some of the test methods used in the paint industry will be considered along with some side-by-side comparisons of the durability of anodized components as compared to painted components. The phenomenon of filiform corrosion will also be considered as it relates to a painted finish or an anodized finish. Some wear testing will be performed on both finishes to compare durability. Environmental impacts of each finish will also be considered.

Gerard Neervoort, Alufinish GmbH & Co. KG, Germany

The aluminum market demands new processes and improved technologies suitable to produce attractive finishings on industrial production. In addition to reproducing "stainless steel" colors on aluminum, achieving significantly darker, decorative gray tones is desirable. This is now achievable with the "Decor Gray" process. The latest available technologies in terms of process control, allow one to apply theories and knowledge; by choosing appropriate coloring parameters, both light and dark gray colored oxide layers can be produced in one bath. Depending on the mechanical pretreatment, decorative surfaces with their own characteristics are possible. Coloring is done analogously to the well-known electrolytic two-step coloring process by a special mixture of different metal salts. The incorporation of metals guarantees good light resistance of the incorporated color and offers new design possibilities, especially in the architectural field.

All available technologies suitable for coloring anodized aluminum are described, including the electro-coloring and dipping processes.

Anne Deacon Juhl, AluConsult, Denmark

Anodizing as a sustainable choice for protection of aluminum is one of the most important topics when talking about sustainable products made of aluminum.  On the one hand, a more sustainable choice can be made by using primary aluminum with a low CO2 footprint (e.g., primary production fueled by wind or solar energy). On the other hand, recycled aluminum is a sustainable choice, too. As aluminum does not change its properties when melted, recycling does not compromise the quality.

Why this is true and how to get around the pitfalls will be elaborated in this paper, mainly as state-of-the-art for the topic, but spiced with case studies. There are a lot of questions to ask, so the five mistakes to avoid when using recycled anodized aluminum (whether you anodize yourself or get your parts from an anodizing supplier), are also presented and how to avoid them.

George Oh and Nathan Sheffield, Quaker Houghton, USA

The causes in appearance of over-tempered anodized AA6063 due to precipitate coarsening have been reported in detail, with reports focusing on streaking and discoloration on clear anodized metal.  In this study, we look at the differences between commonly used tempers of AA6063, including T4, T5, T6, and T52, after sulfuric acid anodizing under standard industry processes. We examine their performance on AAMA-611 quality tests including ADT, coating weight density, and anodic oxide thickness. We also evaluate the appearance and color of both clear and electrolytically colored anodized parts. These results are analyzed in the context of the alloy metallurgy and show the importance of knowing the temper of each piece of aluminum anodized.

Thomas D. Culp, Birch Point Consulting, USA

The latest U.S. energy and green building codes are presented, and how they impact aluminum extrusion use in the B&C sector.  Building energy codes have continued the overall trend of increased stringency, as well as set new targets for net-zero energy buildings.  This will directly impact use of aluminum extrusions, not just in thermally efficient curtain wall, commercial windows, and doors, but also in other applications such as sunshades, framing for solar photovoltaics, and components in electric vehicle charging stations.  On top of this, new green building codes and federal procurement requirements will drive the demand for environmental product declarations (EPDs), low-carbon billet, and recycled content.

Ulf H. Tundal, Hydro Aluminium Metal and Oddvin Reiso, Retired (Hydro); Jørgen Li and Stéphane Briau, Raufoss Technology; and Ola Jensrud, Benedikte J. Myrold, and Jon Holmestad, SINTEF Manufacturing AS, Norway

A novel method for producing high-strength extruded profiles has been developed and implemented in production of a rear spring link for a battery electric vehicle coming for sale in 2025. The method, named HyperAl, is based on a high-strength 6xxx-series alloy and a new thermal treatment process for the billets. With this processing it is possible to increase the extrusion speed by 150-200% as compared to standard processed billets and still obtain the same strength level in the final product.

Hydro Aluminium Metal and Raufoss Technology have worked closely together for about three years to optimize the alloy and the processing from the cast billets to the end-product. This has resulted in an alloy that is produced with a low carbon footprint, reduced processing cost in extrusion, better formability of the extruded profile, and very attractive properties in the final product.

Sunil Soni, Pritam Kumar, and Vinay Maggu, Pranav Vikas India Pvt. Ltd., India

OEMs are focusing more on developing products with long life and high reliability in the current market scenario. The focus is more on components having long life in different vehicle operating conditions. One such requirement is to have SWAAT life for automotive condensers and evaporators of more than 40 days. The current alloy used in automotive condensers and evaporators is A1050/A1100/A3102 with SWAAT life of around 25 days.

This study focuses on benchmarking the current need of the automotive condenser and evaporator to achieve better SWAAT life in different vehicle operating conditions, and suggests an alternate aluminum alloy for multi-port aluminum tubes that meets SWAAT life of more than 40 days. Detailed testing for durability and SWAAT life are done on an alternate alloy, referred to as a long-life alloy, and are proven to use the same in the automotive condensers and evaporators.

Roger Blanch, Kautec Solutions, Spain

The High-Intensive Quenching Table is an advanced cooling system specifically designed for extruded aluminum profiles. It features adjustable spray nozzles with selective angles of incision that can be programmed according to the specific geometry and section of the profile being cooled. What makes this system stand out is its ability to tailor the cooling process to each individual profile. By parametrizing the profile in the software, the machine can automatically orient the spray nozzles for optimal cooling of all sections of the profile. This high-efficiency cooling system is particularly well-suited and up to date for use in the automotive industry. High-intensive quenching ensures that each profile section is cooled evenly, reducing the risk of deformation and improving product quality. The system’s advanced cooling capabilities offer unparalleled flexibility and precision, making it an ideal choice for manufacturers looking to optimize their production processes and improve overall product quality.

Tanju Çeliker, Gülben Karaarslan, Harun Uslu, and Irfan Eker, Onat Aluminyum Sanayi Ticaret A.S., Turkey

Extrusion is an interactive, multi-parameter process, resulting in material properties. Alloy, die design, and ram speed, are important factors. Ram speed determines profile temperature after the die exit together with the alloy. The 7xxx-series alloys are pressed slowly to prevent surface defects. Reduced ram speed affects a low profile exit temperature, which is under solution temperature. Delayed entry because of less profile velocity to the quench system lowers profile temperature, resulting in a microstructure that is not suitable for optimal strength post-aging. For this reason, additional heat treatments are performed afterwards to give alloys their final properties (additional time, cost and labor loss).

To solve these problems, some equipment developments are presented. Experiments to explain the technology are carried out with 7xxx-series alloys. Material investigations such as strength testing and structure investigations are carried out to compare results with/without the developed technology.

Stefan W. Beer, extrutec GmbH, Germany

The requirements for tighter control of the extrusion process in recent years have resulted in, among other things, ever-increasing demands for the quality of the billet heating. This paper will compare various heating concepts (gas/induction) based on recent installations. It will introduce the Power Focus TechnologyTM for induction heaters as well as a new energy supply concept, which will be suitable for retrofitting existing induction furnaces. This new concept will provide the potential of energy savings, resulting in cost savings.

Andrew Halonen, Mayflower Consulting; and Mark Butterfield, Metal Exchange Corporation, USA

Efficiency is inherent to vehicle design because it has a lasting effect throughout the life of the vehicle. To a body structure design team, they are looking for the design and materials that will meet a number of requirements including safety, weight, cost, space, comfort, life and functionality. In theory, they have unlimited materials to select, yet in reality, the materials that meet most of the requirements will be most efficient, and are likely to be selected. Aluminum extrusions are an efficient material because of the low density, high section stiffness, versatile geometry, corrosion resistance, cost effectiveness, and also, because of the ease of integration. Extrusions can be joined to other extrusions, and to castings, sheet metal, and composites. The paper will detail various automotive applications of extrusions with details on the integration to other material forms and how the extrusion process is an enabling technology to great vehicle design.

Saurabh Sedha, Rio Tinto – Aluminium, USA; and Nick C. Parson, Rio Tinto – Aluminium, Canada

The 1xxx-series and 3xxx-series alloys are widely used for thin-wall extruded heat exchanger tubing due to their inherent extrudability, acceptable strength and compatibility with brazing.  Aluminum continues to replace copper tubing in many markets and offers cost and weight reduction along with the ability to produce complex microport extrusions or internally enhanced round wall tubing.  In terms of corrosion, aluminum offers superior resistance to formicary corrosion for interior applications but corrosion resistance in external heat exchanger units in a wide range of industrial or coastal environments is also required.  To address this challenge a range of “long-life” alloys for brazed and non-brazed applications have been developed over the last 15-20 years.  This paper presents a historical perspective for these developments and compares their performance with conventional materials such as AA3102 and AA3003.  Developments for applications requiring increased strength are also discussed.

Jerome Fourmann, Rio Tinto – Aluminium, USA; and Nick C. Parson, Rio Tinto – Aluminium, Canada

Aluminum 6xxx-series extrusions are nowadays widely used in automotive structures and crash management systems thanks to their remarkable characteristics. By taking advantage of the virtually unlimited cross-section design flexibility, extrusion shapes are seamlessly integrated with the end-product design requirements. Alloy/Temper selection can be more complex than other markets, as standard T6 tempers are often not compatible with target tensile properties. In addition, most automotive manufacturer specifications define minimum levels of ductility, measured by bend or crush testing, along with thermal stability and corrosion resistance. The choice of grain structure i.e., recrystallized or non-recrystallized can influence the balance of these properties. The extrusion processing conditions, in particular press quenching, can also play a significant role. Last but not least, the choice of alloy dictates the potential extrusion speed, shape design, and production cost. Strategies for alloy/temper selection based on all these requirements are discussed for a range of characteristics and strength levels.

Nick Parson, Rio Tinto – Aluminium; Jean-François Béland, National Research Council Canada, Canada; and Jerome Fourmann, Rio Tinto - Aluminium, USA

Al-Mg-Si extrusions are widely used in automotive structures and crash management systems. In terms of material properties, a high yield strength is desirable for downgauging combined with superior ductility to accommodate plastic deformation associated with part forming, mechanical joining and crash with minimal cracking. The role of press quench is well recognized and water spray quenching is typically applied. The authors previously established a preferred minimum quench rate of 50°C/sec. However, the size and complexity of recent profile designs, e.g., for battery enclosures, can result in excessive distortion at high quench rates. It is therefore important to understand the material performance trade-offs with sub-optimal quenching. A test program was conducted using a purpose built “quench simulator” to study the effect of quench rates in the forced air to spray regimes for a range of commonly used automotive alloys. Strength and ductility were quantified by tensile and bend testing.

Frode Paulsen, Ulf H. Tundal and Stig Tjotta, Hydro Aluminium Metal, Norway

The increasing use of aluminum extrusions in vehicles leads to higher requirements for alloys with the combination of high strength and ductility. In the extrusion process, such alloys typically need rapid cooling to gain the required final product properties. Additionally, the content of EOL-recycled aluminum is increasing, often accompanied by allowing larger alloying windows. Together, these factors are affecting the geometrical stability of the extruded profile, making it difficult to reach typical automotive tolerances without the need for excessive machining. In this presentation, strategies and methods for calibration of automotive extrusions are presented and discussed, with special focus on new alloys combining high strength, ductility and excellent extrudability. It is demonstrated that even with a high cooling rate and a high content of EOL-recycled material, tight automotive tolerances can be achieved from the extruded profile without machining by selecting the correct calibration method.

Xianyan Zhou, Sigmund Tronvoll, William M. Williams, Lise Sandnes and Torgeir Welo, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway

Industrial leaders are pushing toward high-efficiency manufacture of high-quality products through optimization of thermo-mechanical processes with respect to product properties. As part of this campaign, this paper investigates the influence of recrystallization on the formability of AA6082-T6 extruded profiles, as assessed via VDA 238-100 three-point bending tests. Different recrystallization levels are achieved by altering the homogenization and extrusion parameters while manufacturing rectangular hollow AA6082-T4 profiles, extruded through a dual-cavity die with both water and air quenching. The microstructure after aging was assessed via microscopy and shows that the achieved recrystallization extended mainly through the top and bottom quarter thickness, while extending through thickness for regions closer to the corners of the rectangular profile. The VDA-238-100 testing reveals that, while avoiding recrystallization is paramount for higher formability of air-quenched samples, the effect on water-quenched samples is much smaller in comparison.

Ole T. Midling, Marine Aluminium AS, Norway; and Johnny Pangborn, Metalstar Consulting, USA

Modern product development continues to drive new processes and new applications in old processes, no less in extrusion than in other areas. One little-utilized added-value process applicable to extrusion is Friction Stir Welding (FSW), whereby a high-integrity solid-state weld is formed to join extrusions into structures enabling a higher degree of effective modularization.

The design flexibility imparted by combining extrusions through FSW is a big technical advantage. Close cooperation at the design stage and highly proficient personnel ensure that results comply with all specifications and requirements, with considerable competitive advantage compared with standard process flow.

Based on practical experience within engineering, design, and fabrication of aluminum structures for the marine and offshore industry, coupled with current applications to the production and use of extrusions for automotive components, it is anticipated that FSW will see major opportunities for impact in the near future.

Warren Poole, and Sheida Nikkhah, The University of British Columbia; and Nick C. Parson, Rio Tinto – Aluminium, Canada
 
The use of medium-strength AA6xxx-series extrusions continues to grow in automotive structural and energy absorption applications, e.g., bumpers, rockers, and roof rails. The material requires sufficient ductility to undergo often complex 3-D deformation applied during part forming, joining and in crash. Material properties are typically measured in the longitudinal direction. However, extrusions can exhibit plastic anisotropy such that strength and ductility vary with the orientation of the applied load. Through thickness variations in microstructure, inherent in extrusions, also influence deformation behavior. To optimize performance, it is necessary to understand a material’s behavior at this level of detail. This study used tensile and bend testing to assess the behavior of recrystallized and non-recrystallized materials as a function of test direction. For un-recrystallized materials, the role of the peripheral coarse grain (PCG) layer was assessed, including tests where it was removed on one side of the profile by chemical etching.

Andrew Zang and Warren Poole, The University of British Columbia; Jean-François Béland, National Research Council Canada; Yu Wang and Mary Wells, University of Waterloo; and Nick C. Parson, Rio Tinto - Aluminium, Canada

Hollow extrusions fabricated using porthole dies are widely used in automotive structures and crash applications. It is recognized that the presence of a bridge modifies the local microstructure at the weld seam, and it is important to understand how this region responds to complex plastic deformation applied during part forming and crush.  Model dies were used to produce an AA6082 strip with a central weld line. Microstructures were quantified using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Variations in crystallographic texture were identified at the weld seam and used as inputs to predict local stress-strain response with the polycrystal crystal plasticity code, VPSC.  A finite element (FE) model was built to examine the response to loading perpendicular to the weld seam.  The predictions were compared with local plastic strain variations measured by "micro-scale" digital image correlation based on second phase particles.  Good agreement was obtained between the modeling results and the experimental measurements.

Jeff Victor, Lucas Itchue, Alex Poznak, and Mike Tozier, Hydro Extrusion, USA

Aluminum extrusions are used for a variety of automotive applications. Many designs have ductility requirements that extend beyond what can be determined from a tensile test. Methods to measure and quantify ductility are reviewed, including tensile reduction in area, coupon bend testing, component axial and transverse crush testing, and component three-point bend testing. The type of data generated, interpretation of the results, and guidelines for using each method are reviewed. There is no single best method but linking the design requirements to the test method can reduce risk. It is important to distinguish tests that monitor the process versus evaluating performance of a part. When processes and products are well understood, surrogate tests including reduction in area and coupon bend tests can be sufficient for lot release. Highly critical parts, parts with complex load cases, or processes with insufficient characterization may require components tests linked directly to performance.

Ivan Kniazkin and Nikolay Biba, MICAS Simulations Limited, UK; Brambilla Moreno and Abdelilah El Oirzadi, Phoenix International S.p.A.; Riccardo Ruggieri, Massimiliano Margutti, and Alberto Terenzi, Hydro Extrusion Italy s.r.l.; Sara di Donato and Lorenzo Donati, DIN – Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Bologna; and Barbara Reggiani, DISMI - Department of Sciences & Methods for Engineering, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy

Achieving high-quality welding seams when using porthole dies for aluminum profile extrusion is a critical challenge. Industrial extruders have shown a growing interest in utilizing digital twin technology to optimize tool design and process parameters to achieve highly deformable and robust seam welds while reducing the need for time-consuming and expensive experimental trials. The main objective of this work is to demonstrate the capabilities of the dedicated seam weld quality tool within the QForm UK extrusion software environment for the numerical optimization of AA6082 aluminum alloy extruded profiles. The tool considers all critical aspects that affect seam weld integrity, making it a reliable solution for achieving high-quality welding. A group of experts in different areas of the extrusion technology field collaborate in this work, contributing to the development and manufacturing of the extrusion tool set and industrial validation of the seam weld quality.

Stig Tjoetta and Frode Paulsen, Hydro Aluminium, Norway

Aluminum continuously penetrates new automotive applications. Good examples are wheels, engine parts, crash management components, and sheet body parts. The main driver is to reduce fuel consumption in combustion engine vehicles (ICE). 

With battery electric vehicles (BEVs) the weight focus is even stronger. Whereas lightweighting was to reduce emissions in ICEs, the main driver in BEVs is to reduce the battery size or increase driving range, leading to additional secondary weight savings. In this presentation, the business case is discussed for lightweighting (in €/kg saved). To quantify the cost savings by mass reduction, we conducted a comprehensive study showing cost savings as a function of the most important influencing parameters such as battery costs, the driving cycle, the energy recuperation ability, etc. It shows in a scientific manner that lightweight design maintains a high relevance to save costs, also for BEVs being in the range of 4-7 €/kg saved.

Jeremiah (JAY) Farlow, Shape Corp.; Craig R. Werner, Werner Extrusion Solutions LLC, USA

Craig Werner has authored a number of ET Management Issues papers at ETs in 2008, 2012, 2016 and 2022, and guided Shape Corp. through the development of tailored protocols and spreadsheet(s) to support more optimal equipment decision support for capacity enhancements and cost reduction. The work disclosed in prior ETs provided the basis, but extensive enhancements allow a more systematic "one stop serves all needs” spreadsheet approach, simplifying many tasks and greatly enhancing usefulness, flexibility and efficiency of analysis and breadth of optimization(s) effectiveness.

The past work is briefly summarized but the primary focus is on the philosophical, interconnected modeling approach and implementation, which extruders can use to differentiate themselves from other competitors, whether they are other extruders or companies utilizing competitive materials.

Ole T. Midling, Marine Aluminium AS, Norway; and Johnny Pangborn, Metalstar Consulting, USA

Modern product development continues to drive new processes and new applications in old processes, no less in extrusion than in other areas. One little-utilized added-value process applicable to extrusion is Friction Stir Welding (FSW), whereby a high-integrity solid-state weld is formed to join extrusions into structures enabling a higher degree of effective modularization.

The design flexibility imparted by combining extrusions through FSW is a big technical advantage. Close cooperation at the design stage and highly proficient personnel ensure that results comply with all specifications and requirements, with considerable competitive advantage compared with standard process flow.

Based on practical experience within engineering, design, and fabrication of aluminum structures for the marine and offshore industry, coupled with current applications to the production and use of extrusions for automotive components, it is anticipated that FSW will see major opportunities for impact in the near future.

Alex Poznak and Jeff Victor, Hydro Extrusions, USA; Anders Nesse, Hydro Extrusions, Norway; Thomas Korejsza, University of Michigan; and Adam Hope, Thermo-Calc Software Inc., USA

Recycling represents one of the most viable techniques to lower the carbon footprint of aluminum production.  However, alloys made from high amounts of scrap typically contain higher impurity levels, which can have a negative impact on both extrudability and final properties.  The impact of Fe impurity level in AA6061 alloys is examined using Thermo-Calc and Python.  Over 240,000 compositions are simulated, which span the entire AA6061 composition range for silicon, iron, copper, manganese, magnesium, and chromium.  Key metallurgical metrics such as Mg2Si solvus and solidus temperatures are discussed.  Emphasis is placed on the relative stabilities of detrimental (β-AlFeSi) and preferred (α-Al(Fe,Mn,Cr)Si) intermetallic particles, because their amounts are well known to impact hot ductility and extrudability.  Results show that elevated levels of Fe require higher homogenization temperatures to maximize extrudability, and in some cases require impossibly small processing windows.  However, compositional adjustments can be made to reduce this effect.

Joachim Maier, WEFA Singen GmbH, Germany

The entire aluminum (smelting) industry is on its way to climate protection and climate neutrality – but how about the supplying industries like extrusion die making with its high energy consumption caused by CNC and EDM machining, as well as the hardening processes or its supplies of tool steels. Achieving climate neutrality in accordance with Scope 1 and 2 under the Greenhouse Gas Protocol is possible. Based on a best practice example of the extrusion die manufacturer WEFA Group, the necessary steps are shown.

Janette Courtney and Stefan Vogt, Bonnell Aluminum, USA

Bonnell Aluminum has experienced a significant improvement in safety over the past five years. After acquiring AACOA and Futura, blending cultures from these entities with existing Bonnell plants was a task on its own. Rebranding of Bon L Manufacturing to be one Bonnell United to the Bonnell Aluminum we are today, required a refocusing of safety to no longer be considered a priority but a core value. As a core value, safety is now a part of who we are. Employees understand that all injuries can be prevented. With the implementation of the risk elimination program at all locations, employees are engaged in the safety program. Identifying and correcting risks is now part of the job. Bonnell achieved its record lowest total recordable incident rate of 0.7 in 2022 and asserts to be the safest aluminum extruder.

Stig Tjoetta and Jostein Soereide, Hydro Aluminium, Norway

Ever-more end users of aluminum carry out life-cycle analyses (LCAs) and commit to ambitious targets to fulfil the Paris Accord. Typically, they realize that raw material supply is the crucial factor contributing to their footprint. Consequently, they push towards using footprint as a supplier selection criterion and start to specify a certain footprint. The standards for LCAs provide some optionality to ensure that the standards cover a variety of scenarios. However, choices made can have a significant impact on parameters like carbon footprint.

In this paper we discuss the carbon footprint of aluminum and its influence on the end-user products. Secondly, we discuss two main footprint calculation dilemmas related to recycling:  1) End of life recycling vs. recycled content; 2) Process scrap in open and closed loop recycling scenarios. We will finally recommend a suitable approach to incentivize actions driving the aluminum industry in the sustainable direction.

Thomas D. Culp, Birch Point Consulting, USA

The latest U.S. energy and green building codes are presented, and how they impact aluminum extrusion use in the B&C sector.  Building energy codes have continued the overall trend of increased stringency, as well as set new targets for net-zero energy buildings.  This will directly impact use of aluminum extrusions, not just in thermally efficient curtain wall, commercial windows, and doors, but also in other applications such as sunshades, framing for solar photovoltaics, and components in electric vehicle charging stations.  On top of this, new green building codes and federal procurement requirements will drive the demand for environmental product declarations (EPDs), low-carbon billet, and recycled content.